The Camaldolese Institute
for East-West Dialogue

Sacred Fools and Monastic Rules: Zen Rule-Bending and the Training for Pure Hearts

by Rev. Taigen Dan Leighton

This paper explores paradigms for “pure hearts” in the East Asian Buddhist tradition through the guidelines for monastic training, and through the model and exemplars of the archetypal bodhisattva Maitreya. What are the qualities of the sincere, pure-hearted adept?  How does the training in monastic, or semi-monastic, practice communities help develop pure hearts and open minds?

One of the major Zen writings about guidelines for monastic practice is the Eihei Shingi by the Japanese master Eihei Dogen (1200-1253), founder of the Japanese Soto Zen tradition, and noted in the past century for his poetic, philosophical writings about spiritual practice.  Dogen meticulously describes details of monastic procedures and etiquette, but his primary intention is to stress the appropriate psychological attitudes for monastics.  Many of the figures in Dogen’s exemplary anecdotes violated conventional or literal accord with monastic regulations, but Dogen cherishes them specifically for their dedication to the well-being of the community and for their radical commitment to investigating and expressing the heart of the teachings.

Dogen particularly emphasizes the importance of the practice of those taking on responsible positions in the monastic community.  Two such anecdotes of exemplary practice involving serious violations of monastic regulations are recounted in the paper.  Fushan Fayuan (991-1067) is highly praised by Dogen for his practice as chief cook, even though he was temporarily expelled from the monastery for stealing food to offer to the monks.  Wuzu Fayan (1024-1104) was also expelled from the monastery by his teacher for Wuzu’s scandalous conduct while managing the monastery mill, until it was realized that he had actually been benefitting the monastery.  Both monks are highly praised by Dogen for their determination to pursue their practice and act for the good of the community, without regard for their own personal reputation and well-being.

The archetypal bodhisattva Maitreya is said to be the disciple of the historical Buddha Shakyamuni who was predicted to be the next future incarnate Buddha in this world.  Named after the practice of loving kindness, and often depicted as foolish or naive, Maitreya serves as a model for the pure of heart in the Mahayana tradition.  In addition to his loving kindness and “foolish” simplicity, Maitreya represents great patience, concern for the future beings, and yogic contemplation of the processes of consciousness and how they hinder awakening, as developed in the Yogacara School of Mahayana Buddhism

The spiritual practice and characters of historical Maitreyan exemplars, the Zen adepts and “fools” Hotei, Hanshan, and Ryokan, are discussed.  Hotei was the tenth century Chan monk who is considered an incarnation of Maitreya, and is widely known as the fat, jolly Buddha celebrated in Chinese temples and restaurants.  He provides an image of the pure-hearted monk, graduated from monastic training, and cheerfully playing with children as a homeless street person.

Hanshan, or “Cold Mountain,” is the iconoclastic ninth century lay Zen poet and recluse, who lived near a mountain monastery and represents the reminder of the liberative purpose of monastic training that often is present in marginal characters in and around monastic establishments.

The Japanese monk poet Ryokan (1758-1831) took the spiritual name “Great Fool,” returned to his hometown, and lived humbly in a rustic hermitage after completing his monastic training.  The many colorful stories of his foolish kindness, and his moving poems about his life of simple contemplation and devotion, provide another view of the Zen vision of pure heart.

As speculative examples of Christian figures who provide parallels to the Maitreyan ideal of pure heart and loving kindness, I discuss Francis of Assisi and John Chapman (1774-1845, commonly known as Johnny Appleseed).  They both exhibited qualities apparent in the Maitreyan archetype, such as kind-heartedness, great foolishness in worldly terms, and love of animals and children.

The effort to cultivate and train practitioners toward such openness and dedication is the intention of the Buddhist monastic enterprise.  Yet Dogen’s chosen exemplars clarify that the training of pure hearts cannot proceed simply by following some prescribed routine or program.  The monastic procedures rather serve as a cauldron for guiding the practitioner toward actualizing the inner spirit of the pure heart.

The qualities of the pure heart implied in the Maitreya archetype include lack of pretension or worldly ambition, simplicity of means and demeanor, and a kindly engagement with children and humble folk.  The Maitreya archetype provides specific practices to cultivate such devotion and kindness through meditations on loving kindness; concern for the problems of future beings; the cultivation of patience and calm; and careful meditative study of the self, of one’s own mental processes and the obstructions of habitual consciousness and attachments.